Author: Neville

Oxygen to the Core: Earth’s Core Formed Under More Oxidizing Conditions Than Previously Proposed

Jan. 10, 2013 — An international collaboration including researchers from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory has discovered that Earth’s core formed under more oxidizing conditions than previously proposed.

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Through a series of laser-heated diamond anvil cell experiments at high pressure (350,000 to 700,000 atmospheres of pressure) and temperatures (5,120 to 7,460 degrees Fahrenheit), the team demonstrated that the depletion of siderophile (also known as “iron loving”) elements can be produced by core formation under more oxidizing conditions than earlier predictions.

“We found that planet accretion (growth) under oxidizing conditions is similar to those of the most common meteorites,” said LLNL geophysicist Rick Ryerson.

The research appears in the Jan. 10 edition of Science Express.

While scientists know that Earth accreted from some mixture of meteoritic material, there is no simple way to quantify precisely the proportions of these various materials. The new research defines how various materials may have been distributed and transported in the early solar system.

As core formation and accretion are closely linked, constraining the process of core formation allows researchers to place limits on the range of materials that formed our planet, and determine whether the composition of those materials changed with time. (Was accretion heterogeneous or homogeneous?)

“A model in which a relatively oxidized Earth is progressively reduced by oxygen transfer to the core-forming metal is capable of reconciling both the need for light elements in the core and the concentration of siderophile elements in the silicate mantle, and suggests that oxygen is an important constituent in the core,” Ryerson said.

The experiments demonstrated that a slight reduction of such siderphile elements as vanadium (V) and chromium (Cr) and moderate depletion of nickel (Ni) and cobalt (Co) can be produced during core formation, allowing for oxygen to play a more prominent role.

Planetary core formation is one of the final stages of the dust-to-meteorite-to-planet formation continuum. Meteorites are the raw materials for planetary formation and core formation is a process that leads to chemical differentiation of the planet. But meteorite formation and core formation are very different processes, driven by different heat sources and occurring in very different pressure and temperature ranges.

“Our ability to match the siderophile element signature under more oxidizing conditions allows us to accrete Earth from more common, oxidized meteoritic materials, such as carbonaceous and ordinary chondrites,” Ryerson said.

Earth’s magnetic field is generated in the core, and protects Earth from the solar wind and associated erosion of the atmosphere. While the inner core of Earth is solid, the outer core is still liquid. The ability to preserve a liquid outer core and the associated magnetic field are dependent on the composition of the core and the concentration of light elements that may reduce the melting temperature.

“By characterizing the chemical interactions that accompany separation of core-forming melts from the silicate magma ocean, we can hope to provide additional constraints on the nature of light elements in the present-day core and its melting/freezing behavior,” Ryerson said.

Other teams members include Julien Siebert and Daniele Antonangeli (former LLNL postdocs) from the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, and James Badro (a faculty scholar at LLNL) from the Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris.

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Letters Patent
ELIZABETH THE SECOND, by the Grace of God Queen of Australia and Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth:

TO

The Honourable Justice Peter David McClellan AM,
Mr Robert Atkinson,
The Honourable Justice Jennifer Ann Coate,
Mr Robert William Fitzgerald AM,
Dr Helen Mary Milroy, and
Mr Andrew James Marshall Murray

GREETING

WHEREAS all children deserve a safe and happy childhood.

AND Australia has undertaken international obligations to take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect children from sexual abuse and other forms of abuse, including measures for the prevention, identification, reporting, referral, investigation, treatment and follow up of incidents of child abuse.

AND all forms of child sexual abuse are a gross violation of a child’s right to this protection and a crime under Australian law and may be accompanied by other unlawful or improper treatment of children, including physical assault, exploitation, deprivation and neglect.

AND child sexual abuse and other related unlawful or improper treatment of children have a long-term cost to individuals, the economy and society.

AND public and private institutions, including child-care, cultural, educational, religious, sporting and other institutions, provide important services and support for children and their families that are beneficial to children’s development.

AND it is important that claims of systemic failures by institutions in relation to allegations and incidents of child sexual abuse and any related unlawful or improper treatment of children be fully explored, and that best practice is identified so that it may be followed in the future both to protect against the occurrence of child sexual abuse and to respond appropriately when any allegations and incidents of child sexual abuse occur, including holding perpetrators to account and providing justice to victims.

AND it is important that those affected by child sexual abuse can share their experiences to assist with healing and to inform the development of strategies and reforms that your inquiry will seek to identify.

AND noting that, without diminishing its criminality or seriousness, your inquiry will not specifically examine the issue of child sexual abuse and related matters outside institutional contexts, but that any recommendations you make are likely to improve the response to all forms of child sexual abuse in all contexts.

AND all Australian Governments have expressed their support for, and undertaken to cooperate with, your inquiry.

NOW THEREFORE We do, by these Our Letters Patent issued in Our name by Our Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia on the advice of the Federal Executive Council and under the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia, the Royal Commissions Act 1902 and every other enabling power, appoint you to be a Commission of inquiry, and require and authorise you, to inquire into institutional responses to allegations and incidents of child sexual abuse and related matters, and in particular, without limiting the scope of your inquiry, the following matters:

a.what institutions and governments should do to better protect children against child sexual abuse and related matters in institutional contexts in the future;
b.what institutions and governments should do to achieve best practice in encouraging the reporting of, and responding to reports or information about, allegations, incidents or risks of child sexual abuse and related matters in institutional contexts;
c.what should be done to eliminate or reduce impediments that currently exist for responding appropriately to child sexual abuse and related matters in institutional contexts, including addressing failures in, and impediments to, reporting, investigating and responding to allegations and incidents of abuse;
d.what institutions and governments should do to address, or alleviate the impact of, past and future child sexual abuse and related matters in institutional contexts, including, in particular, in ensuring justice for victims through the provision of redress by institutions, processes for referral for investigation and prosecution and support services.
AND We direct you to make any recommendations arising out of your inquiry that you consider appropriate, including recommendations about any policy, legislative, administrative or structural reforms.

AND, without limiting the scope of your inquiry or the scope of any recommendations arising out of your inquiry that you may consider appropriate, We direct you, for the purposes of your inquiry and recommendations, to have regard to the following matters:

e.the experience of people directly or indirectly affected by child sexual abuse and related matters in institutional contexts, and the provision of opportunities for them to share their experiences in appropriate ways while recognising that many of them will be severely traumatised or will have special support needs;
f.the need to focus your inquiry and recommendations on systemic issues, recognising nevertheless that you will be informed by individual cases and may need to make referrals to appropriate authorities in individual cases;
g.the adequacy and appropriateness of the responses by institutions, and their officials, to reports and information about allegations, incidents or risks of child sexual abuse and related matters in institutional contexts;
h.changes to laws, policies, practices and systems that have improved over time the ability of institutions and governments to better protect against and respond to child sexual abuse and related matters in institutional contexts.
AND We further declare that you are not required by these Our Letters Patent to inquire, or to continue to inquire, into a particular matter to the extent that you are satisfied that the matter has been, is being, or will be, sufficiently and appropriately dealt with by another inquiry or investigation or a criminal or civil proceeding.

AND, without limiting the scope of your inquiry or the scope of any recommendations arising out of your inquiry that you may consider appropriate, We direct you, for the purposes of your inquiry and recommendations, to consider the following matters, and We authorise you to take (or refrain from taking) any action that you consider appropriate arising out of your consideration:

i.the need to establish mechanisms to facilitate the timely communication of information, or the furnishing of evidence, documents or things, in accordance with section 6P of the Royal Commissions Act 1902 or any other relevant law, including, for example, for the purpose of enabling the timely investigation and prosecution of offences;
j.the need to establish investigation units to support your inquiry;
k.the need to ensure that evidence that may be received by you that identifies particular individuals as having been involved in child sexual abuse or related matters is dealt with in a way that does not prejudice current or future criminal or civil proceedings or other contemporaneous inquiries;
l.the need to establish appropriate arrangements in relation to current and previous inquiries, in Australia and elsewhere, for evidence and information to be shared with you in ways consistent with relevant obligations so that the work of those inquiries, including, with any necessary consents, the testimony of witnesses, can be taken into account by you in a way that avoids unnecessary duplication, improves efficiency and avoids unnecessary trauma to witnesses;
m.the need to ensure that institutions and other parties are given a sufficient opportunity to respond to requests and requirements for information, documents and things, including, for example, having regard to any need to obtain archived material.
AND We appoint you, the Honourable Justice Peter David McClellan AM, to be the Chair of the Commission.

AND We declare that you are a relevant Commission for the purposes of sections 4 and 5 of the Royal Commissions Act 1902.

AND We declare that you are authorised to conduct your inquiry into any matter under these Our Letters Patent in combination with any inquiry into the same matter, or a matter related to that matter, that you are directed or authorised to conduct by any Commission, or under any order or appointment, made by any of Our Governors of the States or by the Government of any of Our Territories.

AND We declare that in these Our Letters Patent:

child means a child within the meaning of the Convention on the Rights of the Child of 20 November 1989.

government means the Government of the Commonwealth or of a State or Territory, and includes any non-government institution that undertakes, or has undertaken, activities on behalf of a government.
institution means any public or private body, agency, association, club, institution, organisation or other entity or group of entities of any kind (whether incorporated or unincorporated), and however described, and:

i.includes, for example, an entity or group of entities (including an entity or group of entities that no longer exists) that provides, or has at any time provided, activities, facilities, programs or services of any kind that provide the means through which adults have contact with children, including through their families; and
ii.does not include the family.
institutional context: child sexual abuse happens in an institutional context if, for example:

i.it happens on premises of an institution, where activities of an institution take place, or in connection with the activities of an institution; or
ii.it is engaged in by an official of an institution in circumstances (including circumstances involving settings not directly controlled by the institution) where you consider that the institution has, or its activities have, created, facilitated, increased, or in any way contributed to, (whether by act or omission) the risk of child sexual abuse or the circumstances or conditions giving rise to that risk; or
iii.it happens in any other circumstances where you consider that an institution is, or should be treated as being, responsible for adults having contact with children.
law means a law of the Commonwealth or of a State or Territory.

official, of an institution, includes:

i.any representative (however described) of the institution or a related entity; and
ii.any member, officer, employee, associate, contractor or volunteer (however described) of the institution or a related entity; and
iii.any person, or any member, officer, employee, associate, contractor or volunteer (however described) of a body or other entity, who provides services to, or for, the institution or a related entity; and
iv.any other person who you consider is, or should be treated as if the person were, an official of the institution.
related matters means any unlawful or improper treatment of children that is, either generally or in any particular instance, connected or associated with child sexual abuse.

AND We:

n.require you to begin your inquiry as soon as practicable, and
o.require you to make your inquiry as expeditiously as possible; and
p.require you to submit to Our Governor-General:
i.first and as soon as possible, and in any event not later than 30 June 2014 (or such later date as Our Prime Minister may, by notice in the Gazette, fix on your recommendation), an initial report of the results of your inquiry, the recommendations for early consideration you may consider appropriate to make in this initial report, and your recommendation for the date, not later than 31 December 2015, to be fixed for the submission of your final report; and
ii.then and as soon as possible, and in any event not later than the date Our Prime Minister may, by notice in the Gazette, fix on your recommendation, your final report of the results of your inquiry and your recommendations; and
iii.authorise you to submit to Our Governor-General any additional interim reports that you consider appropriate.
IN WITNESS, We have caused these Our Letters to be made Patent.

WITNESS Quentin Bryce, Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia.

Dated 2013

Governor-General

By Her Excellency’s Command

Prime Minister

ENTERED ON RECORD by me in Register of Patents No. , page , on
Secretary to the Federal Executive Council

Australian heatwave nears 50C inland as severe fire threat declared

Danger rating is two levels down from ‘catastrophic’ warning after two days of relative cool, but temperatures rising again

Australian wildfires: interactive map
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Alison Rourke in Sydney

The Guardian, Thursday 10 January 2013 13.11 GMT

Firefighters douse burning logs near Deans Gap, in New South Wales. Photograph: Greg Wood/AFP/Getty Images

Australia is bracing for more potentially dangerous fires, with temperatures on Friday predicted to soar close to 50C in the centre of the continent and up to 46C in parts of New South Wales.

The return of the scorching heat follows two days of relative cool, during which fire crews tackled more than 100 blazes still burning in New South Wales and Victoria, and built containment lines for more outbreaks.

“We are entering a very challenging fire weather period over the next three days,” said Brydie O’Connor, of the New South Wales rural fire service. “We’ll have 40 degree-plus days in many parts, with a number of fires from Tuesday still burning. Add that to some very strong north-westerly winds and we’ve got a very bad situation.”

A severe fire danger rating has been declared in a number of areas, indicating that blazes could be uncontrollable and fast moving, and threaten properties with little warning. The rating is two stages below the “catastrophic level” warning given on Tuesday, the country’s third hottest day on record, when 300,000 hectares of land burned and many livestock were lost.

About 100 fires that began on Tuesday are still burning. One of them is at Deans Gap, three hours’ drive south of Sydney, where 2,428 hectares (6,000 acres) have been destroyed. Part of the blaze is within two miles of a former military bombing range, unused since the 1970s, containing unexploded ordnance.

“Firefighters are treating the range like they would a home, something that needs to be protected, and are clearing a fire break,” O’Connor said.

On Monday the average high temperature across Australia was 40.3C, surpassing the previous hottest day on record, at 40.1C, set in 1972. Tuesday then became Australia’s third hottest recorded day. Eight of the country’s top 20 hottest days by average high temperature have been recorded this year.

It is the first time the average high temperature across Australia has surpassed 39C on seven consecutive days. Daytime minimum temperatures have also set records. Sydney experienced its hottest night on record on Tuesday, when it was still 34C at midnight.

The heatwave is mainly due to a late monsoon. Typically, by January, the monsoon trough will have migrated south over north Australia, increasing cloud and rain and therefore lowering the temperature.

The monsoon delay has led to a three-week spell of sunny weather across the interior, which has allowed a mass of very hot, dry, air to expand, a phenomenon the country is predicted to experience more often in coming years.

According to the Australian climate commission the number of record hot days has more than doubled in the past 50 years. It projects that the number of 35C-plus days in Sydney each year will increase more than fourfold by the end of the century, and in Darwin from nine to more than 300 a year.

In a recent report the commission said heatwaves were likely to be hotter and longer lasting, causing bigger risks of health related issues. It cited a study in Melbourne between 1999 and 2004 which found that hospital admissions for heart attacks rose by almost 40% during heatwaves in which the three-day average temperature exceeded 27C.

Despite warnings about the potential impact of climate change, large sections of Australian society remain sceptical about the science behind it, including the main conservative opposition party, whose leader, Tony Abbott, once described the science of climate change as “absolute crap”.

He opposed the introduction of a carbon tax last year by the Labour government, saying it would smash like a wrecking ball through the economy, and promised to overturn it if he was elected this year.

On Wednesday Abbott’s deputy, Warren Truss, said it was too simplistic to blame climate change for the current heatwave and fires.

Frank Jotzo, director of the Centre for Climate Economics and Policy, at Australian National University, said that Australia, if grouped with developing nations, was by far the most vulnerable to climate change, so it was “vitally important for the world to limit the extent of the problem”. He said: “Despite this in Australia we still have this fundamental debate about whether climate change is real and whether it’s important – something that for all intents and purposes is settled in the scientific community.”

Australians generate more carbon pollution per head than any other developed country, largely because of a heavy reliance on coal-fired power stations to produce electricity. The country is also the world’s second largest exporter of coal.

Australia, which has a population of 22 million, is responsible for 1.5% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Britain, by comparison, with nearly three times the population, is responsible for 1.7%.

Slash and burn as government cuts firefighting funds

EXCLUSIVE by Andrew Clennell
The Daily Telegraph
January 11, 201312:00AM
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Jake Schutz from Tomerong RFS fighting fire in Jerrawangala National Park / Pic: Craig Greenhill Source: The Daily Telegraph

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The break in the weather is helping our tireless firefighters wrestle back control of the crisis

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Thankfully no lives have been lost in NSW, but these fires have still inflicted misery, especially for people living on the land

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NSW weather updates

alankerlin #FF @NSWRFS cos it’s gonna be hot hot hot! 19 minutes ago · reply · retweet · favorite

leithmcp I have no problem with pics of @TonyAbbottMHR volunteering with the @NSWRFS. My problem is that’s his climate change policy. 10 minutes ago · reply · retweet · favorite

nickpmclaren Today’s fire rating Extreme 4 Southern Riverina, Severe 4 Illawarra/Sth Cst. Statewide fireban. MT @NSWRFS #nswfires pic.twitter.com/2qViKQXX8 minutes ago · reply · retweet · favorite

Lifesaverhelo Lifesaver 1 is airborne assisting @nswpolice in the search for missing rock fisherman. Search Area: Maroubra – Stanwell Park and out to sea. 4 minutes ago · reply · retweet · favorite

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Pictures: Australia ablaze
Contact: State Emergency Service
Contact: NSW Rural fire service

RURAL Fire Service firefighters yesterday attacked damaging cuts to its frontline operation, saying the bushfire-ravaged state was now in even greater danger.

They said a NSW government decision to slash cash for the replacement of tankers and fire brigade stations over the past year had severely hurt their fire-fighting capability.”Governments cut emergency services at their peril,” RFS Association president Mr Brian McKinlay said yesterday.

“What it means is infrastructure items such as tankers and capital equipment and control centre (construction) hasn’t proceeded as in previous years.”

Premier Barry O’Farrell, who has posed with RFS bosses as they fought fires across the state, tried to hose down the claims last night, saying the government had increased funding to the RFS.

But the RFS claims were backed by figures released by the Auditor-General last month which showed cuts across the board.

NATIONAL – BUSHFIRE DEVELOPMENTS FROM AROUND AUSTRALIA

TRIBUTE TO OUR BRAVE FIREFIGHTERS

Editorial – firefighters not an optional extra

NSW on red alert as fires ready to explode

Science focus on ‘dry lightning’

Family’s calm amide the inferno

Holiday traffic goes nowhere

Fire ban with temps to soar again

Fires

NSW Rural Fire Service firefighters hold the line of the Shoalhaven fire at Princess Highway near Sussex Inlet / Pic: Craig GreenhillSource: The Daily Telegraph

The Auditor-General reported total expenditure on the Rural Fire Service fell from $307 million in 2010-11 to $287 million in 2011-12.

The number of tankers supplied or refurbished fell from 216 in 2010-11 to 177 in 2011-12.

The number of active, trained firefighters in 2011-12 had decreased from 94 per cent to 82 per cent and local government firefighting and equipment spending had fallen from $128.7 million in 2010-11 to $109.5 million in 2011-12.

Public Service Association industrial officer Shane Howes said the RFS had been told to cut labour costs by $12 million over four years, which would lead to 120 redundancies.

In an association newsletter last year, Mr McKinlay wrote: “With dismay we note the reduction in the Rural Fire Fighting Fund from $271 million in last year’s budget to the figure of $263 million in the FY12/13 state budget.”

Of even greater concern was that ” the total allocation for brigade stations and fire control centres amounts to $5 million from the O’Farrell government. In the last two years of the Keneally government this allocation for the same period was over $30 million”.

Fires

An Erickson Air Crane fills up from a dam near Sussex Inlet / Pic: Craig GreenhillSource: The Daily Telegraph

The budget for the tanker replacement program “has been dealt a similar fate”.

The government disputed some of those figures and claimed that in 2012-13 funds had actually been increased significantly. But Mr McKinlay said some of those figures involved money “carried over” from the time of the Labor government.

The Premier’s Office referred the matter to Emergency Services Minister Mike Gallacher. A spokesman for Mr Gallacher said: “Funding of $30.1 million is available for tankers and other vehicles and $9.9 million for brigade stations and control centres in 2012/13.”

Opposition’s emergency services spokesman Nathan Rees said: “Only a government with its priorities completely out of whack would consider cutting funding for fire tankers, training and support for the RFS.”

Fires

Motorists wait on the Princess Highway near Sussex Inlet / Pic: Craig GreenhillSource: The Daily Telegraph

Volunteer Tony Abbott doing his part

RFS criticises new planning code

Police hunt firebug who lit blaze

Barry backs tough talk on arson

Editorial – no excuses for lighting fires

ISS astronaut snaps fires from space

Map data ©2013 Google, MapIT, Tele Atlas – Terms of Use

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Arsonists ‘risking lives’ during total fire ban

ABCJanuary 11, 2013, 8:42 am

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Arsonists have lit more bushfires overnight in Sydney’s west, ignoring warnings from police and firefighters that they could face serious jail time.

A state-wide total fire ban is in force, with all forms of burning fuel banned as temperatures rise again.

All walking, cycling and horse riding tracks in National Parks are also closed from today until Monday.

Despite the warnings, nine fires were started in bushland on Victoria Street at Macquarie Fields last night, just across from dozens of homes were people were sleeping.

The fires were quickly put out and police say two 16-year-olds arrested at the scene have been charged with breaching bail conditions.

Inspector Mark Kellet says police need witnesses to come forward.

“There were people out and about so if anyone saw anything whatsoever, even anything so minute – might be something they might have been riding, or clothing descriptions anything like that, or even if they knew the people – cause what they’ve done is that they’ve threatened property and life,” he said.

Meanwhile, in the state’s north, a landholder at Attunga, near Tamworth, has been fined $2,200 for lighting fires to clear rubbish during a total fire ban.

Firefighters were called to the property on Tuesday night to extinguish three small blazes.

Inspector Steve Prior, from the Tamworth RFS says the 37-year-old’s behaviour was completely irresponsible.

“Given the prevailing conditions that were forecast for the following day, which was a further Total Fire Ban, we needed to remove any risk of any potential ignition source spreading from any property,” he said.

“The police have certainly taken that on board and they have demonstrated in this particular instance, as they have across the rest of the state, that they are very serious about it.”

Elsewhere in the state, a police taskforce is still working to find the cause of a suspicious fire at Lithgow, west of the blue mountains on Wednesday.

Police also want to talk to a tow truck driver who told firefighters he has video of people starting fires at Windsor Road in Sydney’s north-west.

A landowner in Middle Dural has been fined for burning logs on a total fire ban day, and a 76-year-old Mudgee man allegedly sparked a fire which burnt 140 hectares by using an angle grinder on his front porch.
Three teenagers have also faced court over a deliberately lit bushfire at Shalvey in Sydney’s west which burned hectares on Tuesday before being controlled.

ABCJanuary 11, 2013, 8:42 am

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Arsonists have lit more bushfires overnight in Sydney’s west, ignoring warnings from police and firefighters that they could face serious jail time.

A state-wide total fire ban is in force, with all forms of burning fuel banned as temperatures rise again.

All walking, cycling and horse riding tracks in National Parks are also closed from today until Monday.

Despite the warnings, nine fires were started in bushland on Victoria Street at Macquarie Fields last night, just across from dozens of homes were people were sleeping.

The fires were quickly put out and police say two 16-year-olds arrested at the scene have been charged with breaching bail conditions.

Inspector Mark Kellet says police need witnesses to come forward.

“There were people out and about so if anyone saw anything whatsoever, even anything so minute – might be something they might have been riding, or clothing descriptions anything like that, or even if they knew the people – cause what they’ve done is that they’ve threatened property and life,” he said.

Meanwhile, in the state’s north, a landholder at Attunga, near Tamworth, has been fined $2,200 for lighting fires to clear rubbish during a total fire ban.

Firefighters were called to the property on Tuesday night to extinguish three small blazes.

Inspector Steve Prior, from the Tamworth RFS says the 37-year-old’s behaviour was completely irresponsible.

“Given the prevailing conditions that were forecast for the following day, which was a further Total Fire Ban, we needed to remove any risk of any potential ignition source spreading from any property,” he said.

“The police have certainly taken that on board and they have demonstrated in this particular instance, as they have across the rest of the state, that they are very serious about it.”

Elsewhere in the state, a police taskforce is still working to find the cause of a suspicious fire at Lithgow, west of the blue mountains on Wednesday.

Police also want to talk to a tow truck driver who told firefighters he has video of people starting fires at Windsor Road in Sydney’s north-west.

A landowner in Middle Dural has been fined for burning logs on a total fire ban day, and a 76-year-old Mudgee man allegedly sparked a fire which burnt 140 hectares by using an angle grinder on his front porch.
Three teenagers have also faced court over a deliberately lit bushfire at Shalvey in Sydney’s west which burned hectares on Tuesday before being controlled.

Is ‘peak oil theory’ delayed by fracking?

About a decade ago, the theory of ‘peak oil’ stated that at some point in the near future, global oil production would peak, sending prices sky-high.

But since then, the discovery of vast shale oil and gas reserves – many of them in the US – has led some to question whether that point has been pushed back, or indeed, will ever happen?

Seth Kleinman, Global Head of Energy Strategy at Citigroup, explained his view that peak oil theory has been “very much delayed”.

Kjell Aleklett, president of the Association for the Study of Peak Oil and Gas, told Today business presenter Simon Jack the US are “lucky that they are in this position”, and “the question is whether Europe will be able to follow”.

“Peak oil is not the end of the world… it’s just that we have to reshape our society,” he added